Министерство Образования Украины
Херсонский Государственный Технический Университет
Отчет
для студенческой конференции кафедры «Финансы и кредит» на тему:
Налоговая система Нидерландов
Выполнил: студент гр. 3 ФК 3,
Баранов Юрий
Руководитель: Химченко С.Н.
Херсон 2000
Введение. 4
Организационная структура. 4
2. Общая информация о налогах, присутствующих в системе налогообложения
Нидерландов. 4
3. Налог на прибыль корпораций(Corporation Tax). 7
3.1 Taxpayers 7
3.2 Tax base and rates 7
3.2.1. General 7
3.2.2. Tax rates 7
3.2.3. Determination of profits according to sound business practice 7
3.2.4. Depreciation of fixed assets 8
3.2.5. Stock valuation 8
3.2.6. Tax-deductible expenses; mixed expenses 8
3.2.7. Reserves 9
3.2.8. Investment allowance 9
3.2.9. Education allowance 10
3.2.10. Tax-deductible donations 10
3.2.11. Offsetting of losses 10
3.3. Participation exemption 10
3.3.1. General 10
3.3.2. Shareholdings 10
3.3.3. Gains 11
3.3.4. Costs 11
3.3.5. Converting a permanent establishment into a subsidiary 12
3.3.6. Losses resulting from liquidation 12
3.3.7. Directive on parent companies and subsidiaries 12
3.4. Fiscal unity; consolidation for tax purposes 12
3.5. Investment institutions 13
3.5.1. General 13
3.5.2. Conditions 13
3.5.3. Reserves 14
3.5.4. Allowance for foreign withholding tax 14
4. Подоходный налог(Income Tax) 14
4.1 Taxpayers: residents and non-residents 14
4.2 Taxbase and rates 15
4.2.1. Taxable income of residents 15
4.2.2. Tax rates and personal allowances 15
4.2.3. Total gross income 16
4.2.4. Non-source-related deductions 20
4.3. Employee savings and profit-sharing schemes 21
4.3.1. Employee savings schemes 21
4.3.2. Profit-sharing schemes 21
4.4. Foreign employees: the 35% rule 22
5. Налог на богатство(Wealth Tax) 22
5.1. Taxpayers: residents and non-residents 22
5.2. Tax base and rates 23
5.2.1. Exemptions 23
5.2.2. Tax rates 24
5.2.3. Special allowances 24
5.3. Tax returns and assessments 24
6. Налог на добавленную стоимость(Value Added Tax and Excise Duty) 25
6.1. Taxable persons 25
6.2. Tax base 25
6.3. Exemptions 26
6.4. Special arrangements for small businesses (persons) and the
agricultural sector 26
6.5. Tax rates 27
6.6. The new VAT system in the single European market 27
6.7. Tax returns and assessments 28
7. Налоги на охрану окружающей среды(Environmental Taxes) 28
7.1. Fuel tax 28
7.2. Tax on groundwater 29
7.3. Tax on tap water 29
7.4. Tax on tap water 29
7.5. Regulatory energy tax 30
8. Избежание двойного налогообложения на доход, прибыль и
богатство(Avoidance of Double Taxation for Taxes on Income, Profits and
Wealth) 30
8.1. General 30
8.2. Methods 31
8.2.1. The exemption with progression method 31
8.2.2. The credit method 31
8.2.3. Deduction as costs 31
Введение.
Причины, побудившие меня к написанию доклада относительно голландского налогообложения, весьма просты. Я побывал в Голландии, где имел ряд контактов «коллегами» родственной специальности и от них услышал о весьма тяжелом бремени налогов, воочию же было видно лишь повсеместное процветание и социальная защищенность. Такой феномен не мог не заинтересовать, и тема доклада вполне закономерна.
1. Организационная структура.
Верховным органом, принимающим и дополняющим налоговое
законодательство, являются Генеральные штаты, законодательный аналог
Верховной Рады. Генеральные штаты, точнее представители 2-3 самых крупных
партий, победивших на выборах, формируют Кабинет Министров. Отличительной
особенностью голландского способа управления налоговой ситуацией является
то, что органы контроля и регулирования входят в структуру Министерства
Финансов. Существует 2 департамента – Генеральный директорат по налогам,
таможенной политике и законодательному обеспечению, а так же Генеральный
директорат по налоговому и таможенному администрированию.
Первый из выше упомянутых департаментов занимается корректировкой процесса налогообложения, например, при неэффективности некоего налога подает аналитический доклад в Генеральные штаты с пропозицией изменить, отменить, ограничить действие какого-либо пункта в законодательстве, также директорат участвует в фискальной части составления бюджета.
Генеральный директорат по налоговому и таможенному администрированию непосредственно следит за выполнением налогового законодательства, собирает перечисленные средства, решает конфликты на почве налогообложения, принимает меры в случае нарушений налогового законодательства.
Если провести аналогию с нашей ситуацией первый Директорат соответствует Комитету по налогообложению и налоговой политике в нашей ВР, а Генеральный директорат по налоговому и таможенному администрированию может быть соотнесен со структурами ГНАУ.
2. Общая информация о налогах, присутствующих в системе налогообложения
Нидерландов.
* Категория налогов на прибыль, доход и чистое богатство(taxes on income, profits and net wealth)
Income tax.
Income tax is a tax on a person's natural annual income. It is levied at a
progressive rate. Personal circumstances are taken into account when making
the assessment of the amount of tax to be paid, and certain expenses are
tax-deductible. The scheme provides for a personal allowance, the amount of
which is dependent on the individual circumstances. There are four tax
rates, 33.90%, 37.95%, 50% and 60%. The first two rates include both tax
and social security contributions; the last two rates consist solely of
tax.
Salaries tax
Income tax has two advance levies, which are a salaries tax, and a dividend
tax. The salaries tax and the social security contributions are levied
jointly on earned income or benefits. The employer or body paying the
benefit deducts the tax and contributions directly from the salary or
benefit, and pays these to the Tax Department. Many natural persons pay
only salaries tax, and are not subject to income tax. For natural persons
with a high income or many tax-deductible items, the salaries tax serves as
an advance levy, and they are subsequently issued with an income tax return
and an assessment.
Dividend tax
The other second advance levy for income tax is the dividend tax. The
corporation paying the dividend withholds dividend tax at a rate of 25% and
pays the tax to the Tax Department. Shareholders are liable for income tax
on the gross dividend they receive. An amount of this dividend is exempted
from income tax, NLG 1,000 for single persons and NLG 2,000 for married
persons. For non-residents the dividend tax levied on a dividend is in
principle a final levy. Tax conventions generally provide for a lower rate
than the 25% mentioned above.
Corporation tax
Corporation tax is levied on the taxable profit of both private and public
companies. Foundations (in Dutch 'stichtingen') may also be liable for
corporation tax. An important feature of the corporation tax is the
participation exemption, which ensures that corporation tax is levied only
once on the profit obtained within a group. This means that a company
receiving dividends does not have to pay corporation tax on these dividends
since the tax has already been paid by the company distributing the
dividends. Corporation tax is levied at a rate of 35%. The first NLG 50,000
taxable profit is levied at a rate of 30%.
Wealth tax
Wealth tax is levied on a natural person's total net wealth. The net wealth
is the value of the assets less any liabilities. In principle the assets
include all property and possessions, for example the person's own home,
shares, bonds and savings, together with the capital invested in the
person's own business. There are several personal allowances and
exemptions. For instance the personal allowance for married couples is NLG
250,000. The tax rate is 0.7%.
Inheritance tax
The Inheritance Tax Act has two forms of tax, which are inheritance tax and
gift tax. These taxes are, in general, to be paid by the recipient. There
are substantial exemptions from both inheritance tax and gift tax. There
are no exemptions from inheritance tax payable upon the inheritance or
donation of specific assets, for example property. The rates are the same
for these taxes, and depend on the value of the assets that have been
received and the relationship between the giver and the recipient. There is
a minimum and maximum rate.
Tax on games of chance
The tax on games of chance is levied on prizes that exceed NLG 1,000. The
rate is 25%. The organisation awarding the prize generally pays the tax,
and the winner receives a net prize.
* Категория налогов и пошлин на товары и услуги(taxes and duties on goods and services)
Import duty.
Import duty is levied on imported goods. This usually amounts to a
percentage of the value of the goods being imported. Various rates are
applicable, which are determined by the EU. The rates are usually lower for
minerals or raw materials, and higher for finished products. Import duty is
levied on goods, which are imported from countries outside the EU. The
revenue is destined for the EU.
Value added tax
Value added tax (VAT) is a general consumer tax included in the price
consumers pay for goods and services. Consumers pay this tax indirectly,
and companies remit the tax to the Tax Department. All companies pay VAT,
although there are a few exceptions. The VAT paid by one company to another
may be reclaimed from the VAT to be paid to the Tax and Customs
Administration. There are three rates for VAT:
. a general rate of 17.5%;
. a lower rate of 6%, applicable mainly to food and medicines;
. a zero rate, applicable mainly to goods and services in international trade, so that goods can be exported free from VAT.
Excise duty
Excise duty is levied on certain consumer goods, i.e. petrol and other
mineral oils, tobacco products, and alcohol and alcoholic beverages. A
special consumer tax is levied on non-alcoholic beverages. Excise duty,
like VAT, is included in the price consumers pay for these goods. The tax
is remitted by the manufacturers and importers of the goods liable to
excise duty.
Taxes on legal transactions
Three taxes on legal transactions are levied in the Netherlands. These are
transfer tax, insurance tax and capital duty. Transfer tax is levied on the
acquisition of property located in the Netherlands. The rate is 6% of the
market value of the property. Insurance tax is levied on insurance premiums
at a rate of 7%. The following insurances are exempted from insurance tax:
life insurance, accident insurance, invalidity insurance, disablement
insurance, medical insurance, unemployment insurance and transport
insurance. Capital duty is levied when capital is contributed to companies
located in the Netherlands when the capital is comprised of shares. The
rate is 0.9% and the tax due is calculated on the value contributed (assets
less liabilities), or on the nominal value of the shares, whichever is
higher. In certain circumstances an exemption is made for mergers or
reorganisations.
Motor vehicle tax
Motor vehicle tax is paid on vehicle ownership, except for buses, for which
vehicles the tax is paid for the use of the roads. The amount depends on
the type and weight (sometimes gross) of the vehicle and for private cars
also on the type of fuel the vehicle uses. Furthermore, for private cars
and motorcycles, the amount is dependent on the province in which the
person/owner is resident or the company/owner is established.
Tax on heavy vehicles
The tax on heavy vehicles (also known as the eurovignette) is a tax on
vehicles with a gross weight of maximum 12.000 kg or more. It is levied for
the use of motorways in the Netherlands. The tax has to be paid before the
vehicle uses the motorway. There are two rates of tax, which are based on
the number of axles of the vehicle; one rate is for three axles or less,
the other for four axles or more. The tax can be paid daily, weekly,
monthly or annually. A similar tax, based on a directive of the European
Union and a Treaty, is levied in Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg and
Sweden.
Tax on private cars and motorcycles
The tax is included in the price paid by the buyer on the purchase of a
private car or motorcycle. It is usually paid by the manufacturer or
importer. The tax is dependent on the net listed value of the private car
or motorcycle. The minimum tax rate is 10% of the net listed value of the
vehicle, unless it is 25 years of age or older.
Environmental taxes
There are several environmental taxes in the Netherlands. Fuel tax is to be
paid by suppliers or users of mineral oil and other fuels. Since 1 January
1995 taxes are liable for the withdrawal of ground water and the disposal
of waste. A regulatory energy tax came into force on 1 January 1996.
3. Налог на прибыль корпораций(Corporation Tax).
3.1 Taxpayers
Corporation tax is levied on companies established in the Netherlands
(resident taxpayers) and by certain companies not established in the
Netherlands, which receive income in the Netherlands (non-resident
taxpayers). In this context the term 'company' includes corporations with a
capital consisting of shares, co-operatives, and other legal entities
conducting business. The main types of companies referred to in the
Corporation Tax Act are the public company (NV) and the private company
with limited liability (BV).
Whether a company is deemed to be established in the Netherlands depends on
the individual circumstances. Factors of relevance include the location of
the effective management, the location of the head office, and the location
of the shareholders' general meeting. Under the Corporation Tax Act all
companies incorporated under Dutch law are regarded as being established in
the Netherlands.
3.2 Tax base and rates
3.2.1. General
Corporation tax is levied on the taxable amount, which is the taxable
profits made by the company in a particular year less deductible losses.
The taxable profits are the profits less tax-deductible donations. In
principle the profits should be calculated in accordance with the
provisions laid down in the Income Tax Act to determine the business
profits of natural persons. In certain cases additional stipulations made
in the Corporation Tax Act are also applicable. Under certain conditions it
will be permitted to taxpayers to compute their taxable profit in currency
other than the guilder (the ‘functional currency’) for a period of at least
10 years.
3.2.2. Tax rates
Corporation tax is levied at a rate of 30% of taxable profits.
3.2.3. Determination of profits according to sound business practice
The profits should be determined according to sound business practice and consistent accounting methods. The concept of sound business practice has mainly been developed in case law. For example unrealized losses may be taken into consideration, while unrealized profit may be ignored. The requirement of consistent accounting methods means that the method of determining profits may be changed only if this is compatible with sound business practice. Companies exploiting sea-going vessels may opt for a tonnage-based profit determination, providing that certain requirements are met. An important requirement is that the decision is binding for a period of ten years.
3.2.4. Depreciation of fixed assets
The depreciation of fixed assets for tax purposes is a statutory
requirement. In principle taxpayers are free to choose a depreciation
method. The method chosen must be in accordance with sound business
practice. The linear method of depreciation is generally used. A less
common method of calculating depreciation is the declining balance method.
In case law, the latter method is accepted only for fixed assets with a
steadily declining use with age. A combination of both methods, i.e.
depreciation according to a declining percentage, may also be used.
Goodwill may only be depreciated if the goodwill has been purchased from a
third party; goodwill generated by the company itself cannot be
depreciated. An accelerated depreciation is permitted for certain fixed
assets, of which the most important are:
. energy-saving fixed assets and other environmentally-friendly fixed assets;
. sea-going vessels;
. intangible assets, providing these belong to a business that has been purchased which was not established in the Netherlands.
This is subject to restrictions.
3.2.5. Stock valuation
The following stock valuation methods are permitted: valuation based on cost, valuation based on cost or market value (whichever is lower), or the base stock method. Valuation at cost is in accordance with sound business practice, unless the market value is significantly lower than the cost. In this system unrealized profit is ignored, while unrealized losses can be taken into account directly. The value of the stock can be determined by either the FIFO or LIFO method. Subject to certain conditions, case law also permits the use of the base stock system.
3.2.6. Tax-deductible expenses; mixed expenses
The basic principle of the determination of the profits is that all
expenses associated with business operations are tax-deductible. If an
expense can be regarded as commercially sound then its value is not of
importance. However, the deductibility of certain business expenses is
subject to restrictions. This concerns mixed expenses, which are business
expenses with a private element. Non-deductible expenses include costs
connected with pleasure craft used for entertainment purposes and fines.
The limitations on deductibility of expenses are more strict for companies
with one or more natural persons holding a substantial interest in the
company, who also work(s) for the company. Basically, a natural person has
a substantial interest if he holds 5% or more (direct or indirect) of the
share-capital of the company. In that case 10% of the company's costs in
connection with food, drinks, tobacco, representation including receptions
and entertainment, seminars, excursions etc., are not deductible. The
company can opt for a fixed amount of NLG 3,200 per substantial interest
holder, who also works for the company, to be treated as non-deductible.
The Corporation Tax Act gives an inexhaustive list of deductible and non-
deductible expenses. The following expenses are always deductible:
. profit shares paid to directors and other staff as remuneration for employment;
. profit shares paid to creditors other than founders, shareholders or other persons entitled to shares in the corporation;
. profit shares paid in connection with licences, patents, etc., to persons other than founders, shareholders or persons otherwise entitled to shares in the corporation;
. profit shares paid by an insurance company to its policyholders;
. the costs of incorporation and of alterations in the capital.
In the Netherlands no thin capitalization rules exist. Since January 1997
limitations on the deductibility of intercompany interest expenses have
been introduced in the Corporate Income Tax Act. The (interest) expenses on
intercompany loans are not deductible in basically two types of situations:
(interest) expenses arising from indebtness in the shareholder/susidiary
relation, e.g. in connection with dividends, reduction of capital and
capital contributions. However, (interest) expenses remain deductible, if
the tax payer can demonstrate that both the transaction and the loan were
entered into for sound business reasons;
(interest) expenses related to artificial conversion of equity into debt
within the group. However, expenses related to these schemes remain
deductible, if the tax payer can demonstrate that either both the
transaction and the loan were entered into for sound business reasons or
that the interest paid is effectively subject to a reasonable level of
profits tax in the hands of the recipient.
The following expenses are never deductible:
. profit distributions other than those specifically designated as deductible in the Corporation Tax Act (see above);
. corporation tax, dividend tax and tax on games of chance.
3.2.7. Reserves
Certain reserves may be formed by making a deduction from the profits. In
order to qualify for this deduction the business must keep regular annual
accounts. Three reserves are legally permitted, which are the cost
equalisation reserve, the replacement reserve and since January 1997 the
reserve for financial risks for multinational companies.
The cost equalisation reserve enables recurrent costs to be spread
uniformly over a period of time.
A replacement reserve may be created if fixed assets are lost, damaged, or
sold, when the payment received exceeds the book value. To be eligible for
this reserve there must be plans to replace or repair the assets. The
reserve should generally be terminated in the fourth year following the
year in which it was formed.
Under certain conditions a reserve may be formed for the special risks
involved in operating as an international group. The risks aimed at concern
financing and holding activities. One of the main conditions to qualify is
that the financing activities must comprise financing of group companies in
at least four countries or on two continents. In principle, the entity that
forms the reserve may charge to this reserve 80% of its income derived from
financing activities before tax. The tax inspector will grant the regime
for ten years upon a request filed by the tax payer, in wich the tax payer
states the relevant factual circumstances. The Dutch tax inspector can
impose additional conditions.
3.2.8. Investment allowance
This scheme allows a certain percentage of the sum invested in fixed assets
in a particular year to be deducted when calculating the taxable profits.
Investments are divided into nine tranches, where the percentage of the
allowance decreases with increase in investment. In 1999 the lowest tranche
is applicable to investments between NLG 3,900 and NLG 65,000, and the
highest tranche is applicable to investments between NLG 503,000 and NLG
566,000. The corresponding percentages are 27% and 3% respectively. Certain
fixed assets are excluded from the investment allowance. If fixed assets
for which an investment allowance was obtained in the past are sold within
five years of being purchased then the investment allowance is withdrawn
either wholly or in part.
Furthermore, there is an investment allowance in respect of investments in
energy saving business assets, placed on an Energylist. For investments
over NLG 3,900 up to NLG 65,000 the allowance is 52%. The percentage of the
allowance declines as the amount of the investment increases. The maximum
allowance is 40% of NLG 208 mln.
3.2.9. Education allowance
This scheme allows an additional percentage of the costs of education of employees to be deducted when calculating the taxable profits. The percentage of the allowance varies between 20% and 80%.
3.2.10. Tax-deductible donations
Within certain limits donations to religious, ideological, charitable, cultural or academic institutions or other bodies serving the public good are tax-deductible. The donations must be more than a total of NLG 500. The maximum deduction is 6% of the profits.
3.2.11. Offsetting of losses
A loss may be offset against the taxable income of the three preceding years (carry back) and against taxable income of all years to come (carry forward).
If a corporation discontinues its business either wholly, or in part, then any losses that have not been offset may be compensated with future profits, provided that at least 70% of its shares continue to be held by the same natural persons
3.3. Participation exemption
3.3.1. General
The Corporation Tax Act has always provided for a participation exemption,
which is applicable to both domestic and foreign shareholdings. This
exemption is one of the main pillars of the Dutch Corporation Tax Act, and
it is motivated by the desire to prevent double taxation when the profits
of a subsidiary are distributed to its parent company which is also liable
to corporation tax. The main features of this scheme are as follows: all
gains from shareholdings are exempted, the costs associated with a
shareholding are not deductible, and losses arising from liquidation of the
corporation are deductible only under certain conditions. The corporation
distributing dividends does not have to pay dividend tax if the
distribution of profits falls under the participation exemption enjoyed by
the company receiving the dividend.
The most important elements are as follows.
3.3.2. Shareholdings
The participation exemption is applicable to both domestic and foreign
shareholdings. A shareholding is deemed to exist if the taxpayer:
1. holds at least 5% of the nominal paid-up capital (a shareholding includes the related possession of 'jouissance' rights); or
2. holds less than 5%, but ownership of the shares is part of the normal business conducted by the taxpayer, or the acquisition of the shares served a general interest; or
3. is a member of a cooperative; or
4. holds at least 5% of the share certificates in a mutual fund based in the Netherlands.
The participation exemption is not applicable if the taxpayer or subsidiary
company is a fiscal investment institution. The concept of an investment
institution is explained in section 3.6. The participation exemption is not
applicable when the shares are held as stock.
The participation exemption does not apply internationally when shares in
the foreign corporation are held as a portfolio (passive) investment.
Another requirement for the exemption to be granted is that the foreign
company in which the shares are held is subject to a tax on profits levied
by the central government in the country in which it is established (see
also 3.3.7.). Furthermore, the participation exemption is not applicable
for participations in foreign 'passive' finance companies.
In principle a Dutch company cannot credit any foreign withholding tax on
dividends received from foreign subsidiaries to which the participation
exemption is applicable. However, the Dutch dividend tax which has to be
transferred by the Dutch company in the event of the redistribution of
foreign dividends received can be partly reduced, subject to certain
conditions. The reduction amounts to a maximum of 3% of the foreign
dividends received.
3.3.3. Gains
Gains from shareholdings are ignored when calculating the profits. In
principle the term 'gains' includes both profits and losses. Profits, of
course, include both official and disguised dividends received. Exempted
gains also include profits made by the sale of a participation (including
exchange rate differences). Since January 1997, it is possible to opt for
application of the participation exemption to currency results arising from
financial instruments which are used to hedge the translation risks on
investments in foreign subsidiaries. Accordingly losses from sales are not
deductible. If the participation declines in value as a result of losses
suffered, then a write-off by the parent company is in principle non-
deductible. An important exception is losses resulting from liquidation
(see 3.3.6.).
However, since January 1997 a company may claim a tax deduction for start-
up losses of a subsidiary, in which it holds at least 25% of the share-
capital. The rules allow the parent company to depreciate the book value of
the subsidiary in the first 5 years after the acquisition if and to the
extent that the value of the subsidiary has declined below cost price. When
the subsidiary becomes profitable, a taxable appreciation has to be made up
to the amount of the cost of the investment. To the extent the depreciation
has not been reversed during the first 5 years, the balance will then have
to be reversed in the next 5 years in equal steps.
If the depreciated debts of a subsidiary to a parent company are converted
into share capital then a special provision prevents tax claims being lost.
In such cases an amount equal to the depreciation of the debt is, in
principle, again regarded as part of the profits of the parent company.
This is also applicable when the debt is sold to an affiliated company or
if it is discharged.
3.3.4. Costs
Shareholdings may give rise to costs as well as gains. In principle such costs are not deductible. However an exception is made when these are indirectly conducive to making profits taxed in the Netherlands. With foreign shareholdings this may occur if the foreign subsidiary has a permanent establishment in the Netherlands. In practice the main non- deductible costs are the costs of financing the participation. The taxpayer must also show that the costs are conducive to making domestic taxable profits.
3.3.5. Converting a permanent establishment into a subsidiary
As losses incurred by foreign subsidiaries cannot be offset against profits
made by the Dutch parent company, foreign activities from which profits are
not directly expected are often undertaken through a permanent
establishment. Foreign losses can then be directly deducted from the
profits of the Dutch company. To prevent losses being deducted from the
profits in the Netherlands whilst later profits in this country are not
taxed, it is stipulated that when a permanent establishment is converted
into a subsidiary then the profit made by the subsidiary up to the amount
of the losses deducted from the Dutch profit is not exempted from taxation.
This obligation to compensate profits made by a subsidiary with earlier
losses incurred by the permanent establishment is applicable to the eight
years preceding the conversion, and is subject to the condition that the
losses have not been offset against other foreign profits.
3.3.6. Losses resulting from liquidation
In principle losses from participations cannot be taken into account by the
parent company. An exception is those losses resulting from liquidation.
The liquidated subsidiary cannot be compensated for these losses in the
future. For this reason these losses may be taken into account by the
parent company, under certain conditions, in the year in which the
liquidation of the subsidiary is completed. The loss resulting from
liquidation is the difference between the liquidation payments and the sum
paid to acquire the participation (the 'sacrificed amount'). Special rules
apply if a tax deduction has been claimed for this participation (see
3.3.3.).
There are additional requirements for taking account of the losses
resulting from the liquidation of foreign participations. One requirement
is that the holding must be at least 25%, and that it must have been held
during the five years preceding the discontinuation of the subsidiary's
business, the year of discontinuation itself, and during subsequent years
in which liquidation payments are received. In addition no loss resulting
from liquidation can be taken into account if the participation was
obtained from a foreign associated company when the operations concerned
are discontinued within three years.
3.3.7. Directive on parent companies and subsidiaries
In 1992 Dutch legislation was amended in line with the EU directive on
parent companies and subsidiaries. The relevant Act has a retroactive
effect from 1 January 1992. The participation exemption has been extended
in several respects. For example an investment in a company established in
another EU member state can be regarded as a participation covered by the
participation exemption. For this purpose a shareholding of at least 25% is
required. The possession of at least 25% of the voting rights in a company
can also be regarded as a participation under certain conditions, even if
the shareholding is less than 5%. Under this Act dividend tax is not levied
on dividend paid to a company established in another member state when the
company has an interest of at least 25% in the company paying the dividend.
This act was further amended in 1994 in order to give the exemption of
dividend tax a wider application than the EU directive. If certain
conditions are met then the exemption now becomes applicable when the
shareholder has an interest of at least 10% in the company's capital, or
holds at least 10% of the voting shares.
3.4. Fiscal unity; consolidation for tax purposes
Under certain conditions a parent company may form a fiscal unity with one
or more subsidiaries. For corporation tax purposes this means that the
subsidiaries are deemed to have been absorbed by the parent company. The
main advantages of fiscal unity are that the losses of one company can be
set off against profits from another company, and that fixed assets can be
transferred at book value from one company to another.
This type of tax consolidation is possible only between a parent company
and its wholly owned subsidiaries (in practice 99% is sufficient) when all
the companies involved in the consolidation are established in the
Netherlands. Other conditions are that the parent company and the
subsidiaries have the same financial year, and are subject to the same
taxes. A request to form a fiscal unity must be submitted to the Inspector
on behalf of all the companies involved. The standard conditions drawn up
by the Minister of Finance must be met. These conditions cover a large
number of technical aspects involved in consolidation.
The fiscal unity can be terminated upon request, or will be terminated
automatically if any of the conditions are not met.
Since January 1997 new regulations apply to leveraged acquisitions, in case
a leveraged Dutch acquisition vehicle is used to acquire a Dutch operating
company. The aim of these regulations is to prevent the acquisition vehicle
to form a fiscal unity with the target company in order to offset its
interest expenses against the profits of the operating (target) company. In
principle, following to the new fiscal unity rules these (interest)
expenses are disallowed (for a period of eight years) to be offset against
the profits of the target company.
3.5. Investment institutions
3.5.1. General
Subject to certain conditions Dutch-based public companies, private
companies and mutual funds may apply for recognition as investment
institutions for taxation purposes. An investment institution can request
to pay corporation tax at 0%. The purpose of this system is to ensure that
persons investing in an investment institution shall not receive a less
favourable treatment than persons who invest directly. This would not be
the case without a special scheme.
As stated in section 3.3.2. an investment institution does not qualify for
the participation exemption, whether it be a parent company or a
subsidiary.
3.5.2. Conditions
Several conditions must be met before an organisation may be regarded as a
fiscal investment institution. These conditions include the way in which
the investments are financed, the distribution of the investment returns,
and the ownership of shares in the investment institution. The main
conditions are:
. up to 60% of the book value of the immovable property may be financed with borrowed capital. For other investments the limit is 20% of the book value;
. the profits must be distributed within eight months of the close of the financial year;
. when the investment institution is listed on the Amsterdam Stock
Exchange, less than 45% of the shares may be held by a corporation liable to corporation tax or several associated corporations (parent, subsidiary, or sister corporations with interests of a third or more in each Mother), unless the corporation is another listed investment institution;
. when the investment institution is not listed on the Amsterdam Stock
Exchange then at least 75% of the shares must be owned by individuals, corporations not liable to profits tax, or listed investment institutions which meet the above condition;
. less than 25% of the shares in the investment institution may be held indirectly by Dutch shareholders via foreign-based corporations;
. less than 25% of the shares in the investment institution may be held directly by a single foreign shareholder.
3.5.3. Reserves
Institutions are allowed to form two special fiscal reserves, the reinvestment reserve and the rounding-off reserve. The reinvestment reserve is formed by non-distribution of capital gains. The level of the annual contribution to the reserve and its absolute size are both subject to restrictions. If, when establishing the amount of the profit to be distributed, an amount remains due to sums being rounded off then this amount may be added to the rounding-off reserve. The rounding-off reserve may not exceed 1% of the paid-up capital.
3.5.4. Allowance for foreign withholding tax
Under Dutch law and Dutch tax conventions withholding tax levied abroad may
generally be set off against income or corporation tax payable by the
taxpayer in the Netherlands. As an investment institution is liable for
corporation tax at a rate of 0% it cannot make use of this facility. To
ensure that persons who invest directly and persons who invest via an
investment institute receive equal tax treatment, special arrangements are
made for investment institutions allowing the former to offset foreign
withholding taxes against income from securities and claims. Under these
arrangements an investment institution may obtain an allowance from the
Dutch tax authorities which amounts to no more than the withholding tax
levied abroad. If not all the shareholders in the investment institution
are resident or established in the Netherlands then the allowance is
calculated according to the number of shareholders resident or established
in the Netherlands.
4. Подоходный налог(Income Tax)
4.1 Taxpayers: residents and non-residents
Under the present Income Tax Act residents are liable for income tax on
their world-wide income. Non-residents are taxed only on the income from a
limited number of sources in the Netherlands. The Netherlands has concluded
a large number of double taxation conventions to prevent the double
taxation of world-wide income. If no convention is applicable, tax relief
may be obtained on the basis of the Unilateral Decree for the prevention of
double taxation. (If certain requirements are met, foreign employees
temporarily posted to the Netherlands may request the application of a
special tax arrangement known as the 35% rule, see 4.4.)
The legal definition stipulates that a taxpayer's place of residence is
determined 'according to circumstances'. Several factors are of relevance
when deciding whether the taxpayer maintains personal and economic ties
with the Netherlands. These include a family home, employment, or
registration in a municipal register. Nationality is not a determining
factor, but it may be relevant in some cases. The law also provides for a
number of special cases. The crews of ships and aircraft with a home
harbour or airport in the Netherlands are deemed to be residents of the
Netherlands unless they have established residence abroad. Dutch diplomats
and other civil servants serving abroad remain residents of the
Netherlands. Foreign diplomats and the staff of certain international
institutions are exempt from Dutch income tax.
If both spouses are resident in the Netherlands then married couples are
taxed individually on their personal income (business profits, salary,
pension, etc.) less certain deductions, allowances and premiums. Investment
income and non-source related deductions such as certain personal
obligations and exceptional expenses are attributed to the spouse with the
highest personal income. If only one of the spouses is resident in the
Netherlands then their incomes are regarded as completely separate.
4.2 Taxbase and rates
4.2.1. Taxable income of residents
The tax year for persons is the calendar year. Residents are taxed on their
total gross income, which is the income from all domestic and foreign
sources less the associated expenses. This income may be further reduced by
certain deductions and allowances not directly related to a specific source
of income. The balance is the total net income. This total net income is
further reduced by the deduction of losses and a personal allowance before
tax is levied. The result is the taxable amount, which is calculated as
shown below. The various terms are explained in sections 4.2.3 and 4.2.4.
|GROSS INCOME (4.2.3): | | |
|profits from business or | |............ |
|professional activities | | |
|income from a substantial holding | |............ |
|net income from employment and | |............ |
|services rendered outside employment| | |
|net income from capital | |............ |
|net income in the form of periodic | |............ |
|payments | | |
| | |______ |
| | |+ |
|TOTAL GROSS INCOME |(A) |............ |
|MINUS: DEDUCTIONS (4.2.4): | |............ |
|contribution to the old-age reserve | |............ |
|the self-employed persons' deduction| |............ |
|business-assistance deduction | |............ |
|personal obligations (special | |............ |
|expenses) | | |
|exceptional expenses | |............ |
|tax deductible donations | |............ |
| | |______ |
| | |+ |
| |(B) |............ |
|TOTAL NET INCOME |(A-B) | |
|minus: deductible losses |(C) | |
|TAXABLE INCOME |(A-B-C) | |
|minus: personal allowances |(D) | |
|TAXABLE AMOUNT |(A-B-C-D) | |
4.2.2. Tax rates and personal allowances
Income tax is levied on the taxable amount calculated as shown above. This
is a progressive tax. The rates are:
|33.90 |on the first |NLG 15,255 |
|37.95% |on the next |NLG 33,739 |
|50% |on the next |NLG 58,762 |
|60% |on the remainder | |
The 33.90% rate is comprised of 4.5% tax and 29.40% social security
contributions, the second rate is comprised of 8.55% tax and 29.40% social
security contributions, whilst the 50% and 60% rates consist solely of tax.
A rate of 16% (first rate) and 20.05% (second rate) is applicable to
persons aged 65 and over, as they are no longer liable for several social
security contributions.
The above diagram shows that a personal allowance is deducted from the
total net income before tax is levied. The level of this allowance is
determined by the tax class to which the person is assigned. This level
depends on the individual circumstances. The basic personal allowance is
NLG 8,950. For married or single persons with a spouse or partner without
an income the personal allowance is NLG 17,473. For single parents with
children living with them the allowance is NLG 15,768. For single parents
in paid employment this amount is increased by a maximum of NLG 6,821. For
persons older than 65 years the personal allowance is increased by NLG 520
to a maximum of NLG 5,678.
4.2.3. Total gross income
The Income Tax Act distinguishes five different sources of income, which
together comprise the total gross income. The five categories are:
|I. |profits from business or professional activities; |
|II. |income from a substantial holding; |
|III.|net income from employment and from services rendered outside |
| |employment; |
|IV. |net income from capital; |
|V. |income in the form of periodic payments. |
I. Profits from business or professional activities
For income tax purposes the definition of 'profits' is the same as that for
the assessment of the corporation tax which is to be levied, except that in
assessing profits for corporation tax purposes a number of special factors,
notably those which reflect the difference between liability to pay income
tax and liability to pay corporation tax, are taken into consideration.
This means that for income tax purposes only sections 3.2.1, 3.2.3 to 3.2.6
(in part), 3.2.7, 3.2.8 and 3.2.11 are applicable.
The following additional rules apply to persons conducting a business who
are liable for income tax.
Accelerated depreciation when starting a business
From 1 January 1996 an accelerated depreciation of fixed assets is
permitted, subject to certain restrictions, for persons who have recently
started a business.
Exemption of profits derived from the liquidation of a business
Only part of the profits derived from the liquidation of a business are
taxable. The exemption varies with the age of the person who conducted the
business. The maximum exemption is NLG 45,000.
Transfer of a business to a relative
If a person conducting a business transfers the business or part thereof to
his or her spouse or partner or children, the transfer may, on request, be
exempted from income tax. The successor then takes the place of the person
conducting the business. A similar smooth transfer also takes place
following the death of the person conducting the business and the
dissolution of the community of property.
Discontinuation of a business liable for income tax when it is to be
continued as business liable for corporation tax
If a person conducting a business which is liable for income tax wishes to
continue the business activities in the statutory form of company which is
subject to corporation tax, e.g. a private company, then he or she may
request an exemption from income tax when this conversion is made. The
company then takes the place of the person conducting the business. The
Ministry of Finance has published standard conditions for such situations.
Deduction for assistance in the business
If the spouse or partner of a taxpayer conducting a business works for that
business for a certain number of hours per year then the taxpayer may make
a deduction for that assistance from his or her gross income. The deduction
is made from the profits at a rate which is dependent on the number of
hours the spouse or partner works for the business. The rate increases to a
maximum 4% when the spouse or partner works for 1,750 hours or more in the
business in that financial year. At the request of both the taxpayer and
his or her spouse the deduction for assistance in the business may be
waived. The spouse is then assessed separately on the basis of the wage or
salary received from the business.
Old-age reserve for the self-employed
Resident taxpayers who derive income from the profits of a business or from
self-employment are allowed to offset a certain percentage of their gross
income towards the provision of a retirement pension. The annual
contribution to this reserve may be no more than NLG 21,367 and at no time
may the reserve exceed the book value of the business's assets. If this
reserve is not converted into an annuity when the business is terminated
then tax will be levied over this amount at a rate of 45%.
Deduction for self-employed persons
Resident self-employed taxpayers between the ages of 18 and 65 who devote
at least 1,225 hours to running a business are allowed to offset a
deduction for self-employed persons against their gross income. The amount
of this deduction is in inverse proportion to the size of the company's
profits. A fixed deduction of NLG 13,110 is allowed on profits of less than
NLG 96,170. The allowance gradually declines to NLG 8,730 on profits of NLG
108,395 or more. Persons who have recently started a business may deduct an
additional sum of NLG 3,840 for the first three years.
II Income from a substantial holding
Income, including capital gains or losses, from a substantial holding in a
corporation is subject to income tax and is taxed at a rate of 25% insofar
as this income exceeds the first two tax brackets.
A taxpayer is regarded as having a substantial holding in a corporation if
he or she, either alone or with his or her spouse, holds directly or
indirectly 5% of the issued capital. If the corporation has issued
different classes of shares, a substantial holding also exists if the
taxpayer, either alone or with his or her spouse, holds more than 5% of the
issued capital of a particular class of shares. If the taxpayer holds a
substantial interest in a corporation, jouissance rights and debt-claims
issued by that corporation and held directly or indirectly by the taxpayer,
either alone or with his or her spouse, are regarded as forming part of the
substantial holding.
Interest derived from debt-claims forming part of a substantial holding is
taxed at the normal rate of income tax. Dividends and capital gains derived
from the alienation of shares or from the redemption of debt-claims are
taxed at a proportional rate of 25% in the income tax, insofar as this
income exceeds the first two tax brackets. In case of a capital loss 25% of
that loss may be offset against the tax which would otherwise be due. For
this purpose an arrangement similar to that for the offsetting of losses is
applicable (section 3.2.11). In case of emigration of the taxpayer the
substantial holding is deemed to be alienated. However, the tax due will
not be collected as long as the substantial holding is not disposed of.
After the elapse of 10 years the remainder of the tax levied because of the
deemed alienation at the time of emigration, is pardonned.
For non-residents the income from the substantial holding is only subject
to tax in case of a substantial holding in a corporation wich is a resident
in the Netherlands. With respect to non-residents a corporation is also
deemed to be a resident of the Netherlands if it was resident in the
Netherlands for at least five years during the last ten years. With respect
to non-residents the substantial holding is deemed to have been alienated
in case of the transfer of the place of effective management of the
corporation from the Netherlands to elsewhere.
III. Net income from employment and services rendered outside employment
This income is comprised of all income other than business income that is
received in cash or in kind from present and former employment, together
with income derived from services rendered outside employment.
Income from present employment includes salaries, payments, gratuities,
tips and certain periodic payments received under social security
legislation (in cash), and the free use of a private car and free housing
paid for by the employer (in kind). Income from past employment includes
pensions, and invalidity, disablement and unemployment benefits.
Salaries, wages and certain periodic payments received under social
security legislation are subject to the salaries tax. This tax is withheld
by the employer, and is essentially an advance levy on the person's final
income tax assessment (see 4.5.1).
Income from activities and services which does not qualify as income from
business or employment is considered to be income from services rendered
outside employment. To be regarded as income there must be a reasonable
expectation that these activities will yield income. Examples are the
provision of boarding for lodgers, and fees for services and copyrights.
In principle expenses incurred in connection with employment and the
provision of services are deductible from the income derived from these
activities. The deduction is equal to the actual expenses less
reimbursements or, subject to upper and lower limits, 12% of the gross
salary, whichever is larger. A fixed sum is tax-deductible for travel
between home and work.
IV. Net income from capital
Net income from capital is comprised of all income from movable and
immovable property and rights not related to goods. Only the yield from
property and rights is taxable; the increase in the value of the assets is
exempted. There is no capital gains tax in the Netherlands.
A special provision is applicable to owner-occupied property. The property
is taxed at an imputed rental value, which represents the balance of the
revenue and expenses connected with the use of a dwelling. This rental
value, which is a positive amount, is assessed on statutory tables. As
normal expenses are included in the imputed rental value, no expenses other
than (mortgage) interest and ground rent may be deducted.
Interest and dividends received by private investors from designated credit
or investment institutions which mainly participate in environmental
projects are exempt from income tax.
Income from stocks and shares includes cash dividends, stock dividends and
bonuses. The final payment to the shareholder following the liquidation of
a corporation is regarded as a dividend if it exceeds the average amount
paid on the shares concerned.
Notional dividends from foreign investment corporations and funds are
income from assets, and are taxed accordingly. In principle the income from
the latter is set at 6% of the market value of the shares.
A maximum allowance of NLG 1,000 is granted insofar as dividends subject to
Dutch dividends tax exceed related expenses (including interest expenses).
Under certain conditions the amount of the dividend allowance can be
raised:
for dividends received from specific private participation companies, the
allowance is raised by a maximum of NLG 1,000;
for dividends received in connection with employee savings and profit-
sharing schemes, the allowance is raised by a maximum of NLG 1,000;
For dividends received from specific participation companies which mainly
participate in starting entrepeneurs (both natural persons and corporate
bodies), the allowance is raised by a maximum of NLG 5,000. However,
insofar as the corresponding interest allowance in connection with starting
entrepeneurs is utilized, this amount of NLG 5,000 is reduced.
For married taxpayers the above mentioned amounts of the dividend allowance
are doubled. The dividend allowance is not applicable with respect to
dividends from a substantial holding in a corporation.
Interest is more than just the interest received from a debtor or bank.
There are special provisions for taxation of the increase from the lower
issue price to par value of zero bonds and deep discount bonds, and the
notional interest on the bare ownership of rights and claims of which the
temporary usufruct is divided.
A maximum allowance of NLG 1,000 is granted insofar as any interest
received exceeds the interest paid in connection with sources of income and
personal obligations. This is exclusive of the interest paid on a mortgage,
which is related to the purchase or renovation of owner-occupied property.
Under certain conditions the amount of the interest allowance can be
raised:
for interest received in connection with employee savings and profit-
sharing schemes, the allowance is raised by a maximum of NLG 1,000;
for interest received in connection with a subordinated loan to a starting
entrepeneur of at least NLG 5,000, or interest originating from specific
participation companies wich mainly participate in starting entrepeneurs
(both natural persons and corporate bodies), the allowance is raised by a
maximum of NLG 5,000.
For married taxpayers the above mentioned amounts of the interest allowance
are doubled. Furthermore, the taxpayer is entitled to an additional
interest allowance when his children under the age of 18 receive interest,
up to a maximum of NLG 500 per child.
The interest component of a capital payment from a life insurance policy
(and the investment income) is not taxed if the payment occurs because the
person insured dies before the age of 72. The beneficiary is generally
allowed the same exemption for payments upon the death of the insured
person at or after the age of 72 if the premiums have been paid over a
period of at least 15 years. Interest included in payments of up to NLG
62,000 on a fixed date is exempt from income tax if the annual premiums are
paid over a period of at least 15 years. This is also applicable to
interest included in life insurance payments of up to NLG 210,000 if the
annual premiums are paid over a period of at least 20 years. Both
exemptions are subject to the condition that the highest annual premium
paid for the insurance may not be more than ten times the lowest premium.
Income from capital includes income from life annuities and other periodic
payments resulting from either a lump-sum payment or the payment of
premiums. These payments are liable to tax over the amount that the
payments and the payments received in the past exceed the total premiums or
lump sum paid under the policy.
V. Net income in the form of periodic payments
There are two categories of periodic payments, those which are classed as
income from capital, and those which qualify as a separate source of
income.
Periodic payments forming a separate source of income can be divided into
different categories. Examples are:
payments from the state, such as certain public scholarships and government
subsidies;
periodic payments under family law, such as maintenance payments, unless
received from relatives once or twice removed;
other periodic payments, claimable in court, unless received from close
relatives, foster parents or members of the same household, such as
maintenance payments to a former partner.
4.2.4. Non-source-related deductions
In certain circumstances payments which are not related to the acquisition
of income may be deducted from the total gross income. These non-source-
related expenses can be divided into three categories, which are personal
obligations (special expenses), exceptional expenses and tax-deductible
donations.
I. Personal obligations
The most important expenses which may be regarded as personal obligations
are the following:
premiums for several forms of life annuity payments, such as (temporary)
disablement, old age and widows' annuities up to NLG 6.179 or, in certain
circumstances, up to NLG 12,358 in the case of (married) couples. If
certain conditions are met then this amount can be increased to NLG 86,480,
if the provisions for the old age pension are inadequate in relation to
current income.
certain maintenance payments or lump-sum payments which replace these;
interest on debts. Since 1997, the deduction of interest on debt is
restricted. Insofar interest paid is not connected with a source of income,
a maximum amount of NLG 5,291 is deductible. For married taxpayers, this
amount is doubled. Certain exemptions are applicable.
losses on specific loans. Under certain conditions a loss on a subordinated
loan granted to a starting entrepeneur can be deducted up to a maximum of
NLG 50,000.
II. Exceptional expenses
Resident taxpayers may deduct certain exceptional expenses from their total
gross income. There are a number of categories of exceptional expenses,
each of which has its own specific non-deductible component based on the
taxpayers' gross income. For married couples the non-deductible component
is calculated on the basis of their joint income.
The following categories can be distinguished:
medical expenses and expenses related to disability and old age are tax-
deductible when they exceed a certain percentage of the joint gross income,
subject to specified upper and lower limits;
expenses involved in the maintenance of children younger than 27 years of
age;
expenses involved in the support of certain relatives;
expenses which are made in connection with study or training for a
profession. Studies as a hobby do not qualify;
expenses involved in child care, subject to certain conditions.
III. Tax-deductible donations
Donations to domestic religious, charitable, cultural and academic
institutions or other bodies serving the public good in excess of 1% of the
gross income may be deducted by resident taxpayers, with a lower limit of
NLG 120. Donations in excess of 10% of the gross income are not tax-
deductible. Provided certain conditions are met this restriction does not
apply to donations in the form of annuities. Contributions to foreign
institutions of the kinds indicated above may also qualify, if the
institutions have been designated as such by the Ministry of Finance.
4.3. Employee savings and profit-sharing schemes
Employers and employees may agree to set up employee savings schemes in which a certain maximum amount of the salary is exempt from tax and social security contributions. Employers in the private sector can set up profit- sharing schemes to provide a tax advantage for both employers and employees.
4.3.1. Employee savings schemes
Since January 1994 new rules apply which exempt employers from paying tax
and social security contributions on each employee's salary to a maximum of
NLG 2,894. This is applicable to salaries based on:
premium savings schemes, or
salary savings schemes (including blocked profit-sharing schemes and share
option schemes in the private sector).
In premium savings schemes the employer withholds an agreed amount from the
employee's net salary and deposits this in a premium savings account. The
employer can then award the employee a savings premium of up to 100% of the
amount withheld, to a maximum of NLG 1,158. Under certain conditions no tax
and social security contributions need to be paid on this savings premium.
In salary savings schemes the employer withholds an agreed amount not
exceeding NLG 1,736 of the employee's gross salary and deposits this in a
savings account blocked for at least four years. When the sum is paid out
it is not liable to tax or social security contributions.
However, the employer is required to pay 10% salaries tax on the exempted amount.
4.3.2. Profit-sharing schemes
Employers in the private sector can give their employees a share in the
(fiscal or commercial) profits of the business or of one or more businesses
associated with the business. If the profit payment is blocked in a salary
savings account then the rules for salary savin